Ancient Anatolia: Cradle of Civilizations (Pre-1200 BCE)
Anatolia has been continuously inhabited since the late Paleolithic period and is home to some of the world's oldest known human settlements, such as
(c. 10,000 BCE) and
(c. 7,000 BCE). The region was an early center for agriculture and the development of organized society.
- Hittite Empire: Around 1700 BCE, the Hittites established the first major state in Anatolia with their capital at Hattusa. The Hittite Empire was a major Bronze Age power, rivaling Egypt and Assyria.
- Classical Antiquity: Following the Hittite collapse, various cultures including the Phrygians, Urartians, Lydians (inventors of minted coinage), and Ionian Greeks flourished.
- Persian and Hellenistic Rule: The region was conquered by the Achaemenid Persian Empire in the 6th century BCE and subsequently by Alexander the Great in 334 BCE, which ushered in the Hellenistic period.
Roman and Byzantine Empires (c. 130 BCE–1071 CE)
Anatolia became a Roman province around 130 BCE. When the Roman Empire split, Anatolia became a core part of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, with its capital at Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). During this Christian golden age, grand churches were built, and urban centers thrived.
Turkish Settlement and the Ottoman Empire (1071–1922)
The arrival of Turkic peoples from Central Asia fundamentally reshaped the region's identity.
- Seljuk Turks: The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which opened Anatolia to Turkish settlement and the gradual introduction of Islamic culture and the Turkish language.
- Ottoman Empire: Founded by Osman I in 1299, the Ottomans rose to become a dominant world power, capturing Constantinople in 1453 and ending the Byzantine Empire. At its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire spanned southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The empire experienced a long, slow decline starting in the 17th century due to internal fragmentation and external conflicts.
The Birth of the Republic of Turkey (1923–Present)
The Ottoman Empire collapsed after its defeat as an ally of Germany in World War I.
- War of Independence: Following the war, Allied powers occupied parts of Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk), an Ottoman military officer and war hero, led the Turkish National Movement in a War of Independence against the occupying forces.
- Secular Republic: The monarchy was abolished, and the
Republic of Turkey
was founded on October 29, 1923, with Ankara as its new capital and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk as its first President. Atatürk implemented sweeping secular and social reforms, including abolishing religious courts, giving women the right to vote, and introducing a new Turkish alphabet, aiming to modernize Turkey along Western lines.
- Modern Era: Turkey joined NATO in 1952 and has navigated a complex path with periods of military coups and the development of a multi-party democratic system. Today, Turkey is a diverse, modern republic with a pivotal geopolitical role at the intersection of Europe and Asia.
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