Pre-Columbian Mexico (c. 8000 BCE–1521 CE)
Mexico was a cradle of civilization (Mesoamerica), home to some of the most advanced societies in the Americas.
- Early Civilizations: The Olmec (c. 1500–400 BCE) are considered Mexico's "mother culture," laying the groundwork for later societies. They were followed by the Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula and southern regions, known for their sophisticated writing, mathematics, and architecture, which reached its peak during the Classic period (c. 250–900 CE).
- Teotihuacan and Toltec: The massive urban center of
Teotihuacan
, near modern-day Mexico City, flourished between 100 BCE and 700 CE, becoming the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas with a population of over 150,000 people. Following its collapse, the Toltec culture dominated central Mexico (c. 950–1150 CE).
- Aztec Empire: The last great indigenous empire was that of the Aztecs (Mexica), who arrived in the Valley of Mexico around 1200 CE. They founded their capital city,
Tenochtitlan
(modern Mexico City), in 1325 and established an empire that dominated much of central Mexico by the early 16th century.
Spanish Conquest and Colonial Era (1521–1821)
- The Conquest: In 1519, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived on the Gulf Coast. Allied with local Indigenous enemies of the Aztecs, Cortés marched on
Tenochtitlan
and captured the city in August 1521, bringing the Aztec Empire to an end.
- New Spain: The Spanish established the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which would last for 300 years. The colonial economy was fueled by vast silver deposits and the forced labor of Indigenous and, later, African enslaved people. Spanish language and the Roman Catholic religion were imposed, leading to a new multiracial society (Mestizo culture).
Independence and 19th Century Turmoil (1821–1900)
- War of Independence: Inspired by Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808, a movement for independence began. In 1810, the priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla issued the "Cry of Dolores," sparking the Mexican War of Independence. Mexico finally won its independence in 1821 and briefly became an empire before establishing a federal republic in 1824.
- Instability and Loss of Territory: The early republic was marked by political instability and conflict. Texas seceded in 1836, leading to its annexation by the US in 1845. The subsequent Mexican-American War (1846–1848) resulted in Mexico losing nearly half of its territory through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
- Reform and Intervention: A period of liberal reform known as La Reforma aimed to limit the power of the Catholic Church and military. This led to a civil war and a French invasion, which installed Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico (1864–1867). Republican forces led by Benito Juárez eventually overthrew and executed Maximilian, restoring the republic.
- The Porfiriato: The era from 1876 to 1911, under the long dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, brought modernization and economic growth but also extreme social inequality and political repression.
Mexican Revolution and Modern Mexico (1910–Present)
- The Revolution: Social unrest exploded into the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), a decade-long civil war involving key figures like Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. The conflict ended the dictatorship and led to the adoption of the progressive Constitution of 1917, which remains the governing document today.
- PRI Dominance and Democratization: The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) was founded in 1929 and went on to dominate Mexican politics for 71 years, bringing stability but often through authoritarian means. The late 20th century saw a shift towards democracy, culminating in Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action Party (PAN) winning the presidency in 2000, ending the PRI's long rule.
- Contemporary Challenges: Modern Mexico faces ongoing challenges including economic inequality, systemic corruption, and significant drug-related violence. The nation is a major regional power with a rich cultural heritage and a diverse, globalized economy.
|
 |
