Indigenous Australia (c. 65,000 BCE–1770 CE)
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have inhabited the continent for at least 65,000 years, making theirs the world's oldest continuous living culture. They developed diverse and sophisticated cultures, languages (around 250 distinct languages), and a deep spiritual connection to the land known as the Dreaming. Indigenous communities sustainably managed the land through practices like "fire-stick farming," building a complex hunter-gatherer society with established laws and social structures.
European Exploration and Colonization (1606–1901)
European interaction began with the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606, who mapped part of the northern coast and named the continent "New Holland". In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast, named it New South Wales, and claimed it for Great Britain.
British colonization began with the arrival of the First Fleet in January 1788 at Sydney Cove, establishing a penal colony to relieve overcrowded British prisons.
- Penal Colonies and Free Settlement: Over 160,000 convicts were transported to Australia until 1868. Free settlers also arrived, particularly after the 1850s gold rushes, which dramatically increased the population and spurred economic growth.
- Conflict and Dispossession: The expansion of British settlement across the continent led to the widespread displacement of Indigenous Australians from their traditional lands. This era was marked by violent conflict, massacres, and introduced diseases, which caused a devastating collapse in the Indigenous population. The land was claimed under the doctrine of terra nullius (land belonging to no one), a concept later legally overturned.
- Self-Government: Throughout the mid-to-late 19th century, the individual colonies (New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland) progressively gained self-governance within the British Empire.
Federation and Modern Australia (1901–Present)
On January 1, 1901, the six colonies federated to form the
, a self-governing Dominion of the British Empire with its own national constitution.
- Nationhood and Global Conflicts: Australia developed a distinct national identity, particularly through its involvement in World War I (the ANZAC legend emerged from the Gallipoli campaign) and World War II. The Statute of Westminster Adoption Act in 1942 formalized Australia's legislative independence from the UK.
- Multiculturalism and Social Change: A massive post-WWII immigration program from across the globe transformed Australia into one of the world's most multicultural nations.
- Indigenous Rights and Reconciliation: The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen growing efforts toward reconciliation and the recognition of Indigenous rights.
- In a landmark 1967 referendum, Australians voted overwhelmingly to amend the Constitution to count Aboriginal people in the national census and allow the federal government to make laws regarding them.
- The 1992 Mabo High Court decision legally recognized native title and the fact that terra nullius was a fiction.
- In 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issued a formal apology to the "Stolen Generations" (Indigenous children forcibly removed from their families under past government policies).
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