Kievan Rus' and Mongol Domination

The history of Russia traditionally begins in the 9th century with the founding of Kievan Rus', a federation of East Slavic tribes united by Scandinavian Varangian rulers. In 988 CE, Prince Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, defining Russian culture for the next millennium. In the 13th century, Mongol invaders (the Golden Horde) destroyed most Rus' cities and ruled the region as vassals until the late 15th century. 

The Rise of Muscovy and the Russian Empire

During and after the Mongol era, Moscow

Muscovy

) emerged as the primary power, consolidating Russian lands. Ivan IV (the Terrible) was the first ruler to be proclaimed Tsar in 1547 and began the conquest of Siberia. In 1613, after a period of instability known as the "Time of Troubles," the Romanov dynasty began its rule, which lasted until 1917. 

Revolution and the Soviet Union

In 1917, internal unrest and poor performance in World War I led to the Russian Revolution, which overthrew the Romanov monarchy. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in the October Revolution and, after a brutal Civil War (1918–1922), established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). 

Under Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialization and agricultural collectivization but also experienced mass purges and severe political repression (the Gulag system). The 

USSR

played a decisive role in World War II, defeating Nazi Germany at immense cost, and subsequently emerged as a global superpower and the primary rival to the United States during the Cold War.

The Modern Russian Federation

In the late 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms (perestroika and glasnost) weakened central control. The Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991, and Russia became an independent country, the 

Russian Federation

, taking the USSR's seat on the UN Security Council. The 1990s were marked by chaotic liberal economic reforms and political turmoil. Vladimir Putin rose to power at the end of 1999 and has dominated Russian politics since, consolidating state power and asserting a strong foreign policy.