Early Nomadic Empires (c. 8th Century BCE–1206 CE)
The Mongolian steppes have been home to various nomadic groups for millennia. From time to time, these groups formed powerful confederations that challenged neighboring sedentary civilizations.
- Xiongnu Empire (c. 209 BCE): The Xiongnu were the first major nomadic confederation to emerge, forcing the Qin Dynasty of China to build the Great Wall as a defense against their invasions.
- Successive Empires: Following the Xiongnu's decline, other groups like the Turkic Khaganates and the Uyghur Khaganate ruled the region until the late 12th century.
The Mongol Empire (1206–1368 CE)
In the late 12th century, a leader named Temüjin succeeded in uniting the various Mongol tribes. In 1206, a great council (Khuraltai) proclaimed him Genghis Khan, or "universal ruler," of all Mongols.
- Rapid Expansion: Genghis Khan forged a highly effective army of light cavalry that rapidly expanded the empire in all directions. The Mongol Empire eventually became the largest contiguous land empire in history, stretching from the Sea of Japan to Eastern Europe, connecting East and West through trade and the enforced Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).
- Division and Decline: After Genghis Khan's death in 1227, the empire was divided into four khanates among his descendants. Internal conflict and power struggles led to the empire's fragmentation by the late 14th century, with the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty taking control of China proper. The Mongol court retreated north, continuing as the Northern Yuan dynasty.
Qing Dynasty Rule and Independence (1691–1924)
Centuries of internal conflict followed the empire's collapse. Eventually, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty conquered Inner Mongolia in 1636 and Outer Mongolia (modern Mongolia) in 1691.
- Qing Rule: For over 200 years, Mongolia was ruled by the Qing dynasty until 1911. During this time, Tibetan Buddhism became widespread, with nearly one-third of adult males becoming monks by the early 20th century.
- Declaration of Independence: In 1911, taking advantage of the weakening Qing dynasty, Mongolia declared its independence under the Bogd Khan, its spiritual leader. China briefly reoccupied the country in 1919.
Modern Mongolia (1924–Present)
- Communist Era: In 1921, a people's revolution, aided by the Soviet Red Army, established full independence. After the Bogd Khan's death in 1924, the
Mongolian People's Republic
was proclaimed, becoming the world's second communist state. Mongolia remained a Soviet-dominated communist regime for nearly 70 years, a period marked by political purges and religious persecution.
- Democracy and Transition: Inspired by the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, a peaceful democratic revolution began in 1989–1990. The communists gave up power, and Mongolia adopted a new, democratic constitution in 1992, transitioning to a market economy. Today, Mongolia is a stable, landlocked parliamentary democracy.
|
 |
